decentralized

Written by Qubic Scientific Team

How Information Flows in Traditional Artificial Neural Networks
In the artificial intelligence models we know, information enters, is encoded, is transformed through algebraic matrices, and produces outputs. Even in the most advanced architectures such as transformers, the principle is the same: the signal passes through a series of well-defined operations within a structured system. The model functions as a directed processing circuit, from left to right, input-output, or from right to left, through backpropagation for adjustments and training.
The results, as we well know, are spectacular. By working over millions of language parameters, AI is capable of giving magnificent answers, along with some hallucinations, however. But if the goal is not to process inputs and produce outputs, but to build systems capable of maintaining an internal dynamics, adapting continuously, reorganizing themselves, regulating their learning, and sustaining intelligence as a property of the tissue, current AI falls short.
Although people sometimes speak of language models as imitations of the brain, in reality this is more of a comparative metaphor than a simulation of computational neuroscience. Biological systems do not handle information from left to right and vice versa. Information propagates through a network, feeds back on itself, and also oscillates, is dampened, or is reinforced depending on the context.

Fig 1. Left-right information flow in traditional artificial neural networks
Not Only Neurons: The Role of Astrocytes in Brain Function and Synaptic Plasticity
We usually associate cognition and intelligence with the functioning of neurons, their receptors, and neurotransmitters. But they are not the only cells in the nervous system. For a long time, astrocytes were considered nervous system cells devoted to support, cleaning, nutrition, and stability of the environment. Today we know that they actively participate in regulation; in fact, a term is used: tripartite synapse, in which they actively participate by detecting neurotransmitters, integrating signals from multiple synapses, modulating plasticity, and modifying the functional efficacy of the circuit.
A living network is not composed only of neurons that fire, but also of astrocytes that regulate how, when, and how much the system changes. In biology, computing is not only about emitting a signal but also about modulating the terrain where that signal will have an effect. Recent research has demonstrated that astrocytes can perform normalization operations analogous to self-attention mechanisms found in transformer architectures — linking astrocyte–neuron interactions directly to attention-like computation in artificial intelligence systems.

Fig. 2 Biological astrocytes and tripartite synapse 
Astrocytic Gating in Neuraxon: Bio-Inspired Neural Network Architecture
Neuraxon is an architecture that tries to recover and emulate the functioning of the brain and to compute functional properties that classical artificial networks have oversimplified.
As we have explained in previous volumes of this academy, Neuraxon does not work only with input, output, and hidden neurons in the conventional sense. It introduces units with states that emulate excitatory, inhibitory, or neutral potentials (-1, 0, +1). In addition, it does so within a continuous TEMPORAL dynamics where we take into account context and the recent history of activation. The network is no longer a sum of layers but resembles more a system with internal physiology. For deeper context on how these foundational elements work, see NIA Volume 1: Why Intelligence Is Not Computed in Steps, but in Time and NIA Volume 2: Ternary Dynamics as a Model of Living Intelligence.
We have explained how Neuraxon models transmission through fast, slow, and neuromodulatory receptors — a mechanism explored in depth in NIA Volume 3: Neuromodulation and Brain-Inspired AI. But now we also model the regulation of plasticity through astrocytic gating.
How Astrocyte-Gated Multi-Timescale Plasticity (AGMP) Works
Astrocytic gating introduces a gate inspired by the role of astrocytes in the tripartite synapse. The idea is to introduce a local, slow, and contextual filter that determines when a synaptic modification should be opened, dampened, or blocked. It is as if the system can consider whether there is permission for a change. This approach directly addresses the stability-plasticity dilemma, one of the most fundamental challenges in continual learning for neural networks.
Eligibility Traces and Local Synaptic Memory
How does it work? Through a kind of eligibility trace. It is a local memory that says, "something relevant has happened at this synapse." It is updated with a decay over time and with a function between presynaptic and postsynaptic activity. That is: the synapse accumulates local evidence of temporal coincidence or causality. From there, there is a global broadcast-type signal, such as an error, a possible reward, or something dopamine-like. The astrocytic gate selects whether the neuron is in a learning state. In future versions, astrocytes could modulate thousands of synapses if this provides a computational advantage.
This approach is consistent with recent advances in neuromorphic computing, including the Astrocyte-Gated Multi-Timescale Plasticity (AGMP) framework proposed for spiking neural networks, which similarly augments eligibility-trace learning with a slow astrocyte state that gates synaptic updates — yielding a four-factor learning rule (eligibility × modulatory signal × astrocytic gate × stabilization).
Endogenous Regulation: Why Neuraxon Is More Than a Conventional Neural Network
Neuraxon within QUBIC does not compete in scale or task performance. It works through an architecture with endogenous regulation. By incorporating astrocytic principles, it begins to behave like a network with internal ecology. That is: a system where it matters not only which units are activated, but which domains of the tissue are plastic, which are stabilized, which areas are damping noise, which are consolidating regularities, and which are preparing to reorganize themselves. For a comprehensive overview of how biological and artificial neural networks compare, see NIA Volume 4: Neural Networks in AI and Neuroscience.
For Aigarth and QUBIC, the goal is not to accumulate more parameters, but to introduce more levels of functional organization within the system.
Why Astrocytic Gating Matters for Aigarth and Decentralized AI
Aigarth is not a static model but an evolutionary tissue through an architecture capable of growing, mutating, pruning, generating functional offspring, and reorganizing its topology under adaptive pressures. In that context, Neuraxon contributes something: a rich computational microphysiology for the units that inhabit that tissue.
This has implications for robustness, adaptability, and memory. Also for scalability. In large architectures, the problem is not only that there are many units, but how to coordinate which parts of the system are available for reconfiguration and which must maintain stability.
In roadmap terms for QUBIC, the goal is to build systems where intelligence emerges not only from neuronal computation, but also from the coupling between fast processing, slow modulation, and structural evolution. You can explore these dynamics firsthand with the interactive Neuraxon 3D simulation on HuggingFace Spaces, where you can build, configure, and simulate a Neuraxon 2.0 network from scratch.
Fig 3. Neuraxon astrocytes gating - AGMP formulation
Scientific References
Allen, N. J., & Eroglu, C. (2017). Cell biology of astrocyte-synapse interactions. Neuron, 96(3), 697–708.Halassa, M. M., Fellin, T., & Haydon, P. G. (2007). The tripartite synapse: Roles for gliotransmission in health and disease. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 13(2), 54–63.Kofuji, P., & Araque, A. (2021). Astrocytes and behavior. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 44, 49–67.=Perea, G., Navarrete, M., & Araque, A. (2009). Tripartite synapses: Astrocytes process and control synaptic information. Trends in Neurosciences, 32(8), 421–431.Woodburn, R. L., Bollinger, J. A., & Wohleb, E. S. (2021). Synaptic and behavioral effects of astrocyte activation. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 15, 645267.=Vivancos, D. & Sanchez, J. (2026). Neuraxon v2.0: A New Neural Growth & Computation Blueprint. ResearchGate Preprint.
Explore the Full Neuraxon Intelligence Academy
This is Volume 5 of the Neuraxon Intelligence Academy by the Qubic Scientific Team. If you are just joining us, explore the complete series to build a full understanding of the science behind Neuraxon and Qubic's approach to brain-inspired, decentralized artificial intelligence:
NIA Volume 1: Why Intelligence Is Not Computed in Steps, but in Time — Explores why biological intelligence operates in continuous time rather than discrete computational steps like traditional LLMs.NIA Volume 2: Ternary Dynamics as a Model of Living Intelligence — Explains ternary dynamics and why three-state logic (excitatory, neutral, inhibitory) matters for modeling living systems.NIA Volume 3: Neuromodulation and Brain-Inspired AI — Covers neuromodulation and how the brain's chemical signaling (dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, norepinephrine) inspires Neuraxon's architecture.NIA Volume 4: Neural Networks in AI and Neuroscience — A deep comparison of biological neural networks, artificial neural networks, and Neuraxon's third-path approach.
Qubic is a decentralized, open-source network for experimental technology. To learn more, visit qubic.org
#Qubic #AGI #Neuraxon #academy #decentralized

​Just dove into @MidnightNetwork MidnightNetwork, a unique platform blending #decentralized storytelling with immersive experiences. It’s rewriting the rules of Web3, prioritizing community collaboration and genuine interaction over traditional speculation.
​The $NIGHT token is central to this ecosystem, designed not just for transacting, but for unlocking unique engagement and growth opportunities within this forward-thinking digital environment. @MidnightNetwork is building a future where innovation and communities take center stage.
​Now is the perfect time to explore—the possibilities are endless! 🌙
​#night #Web3 #DecentralizedStorytelling #INNOVATION

Crypto has witnessed waves of excitement, speculation, and fear. Projects have exploded overnight only to fade just as quickly. Narratives shifted from DeFi to NFTs, from GameFi to AI — but very few ecosystems managed to build something that survives beyond the hype.


Injective stands out because it didn’t chase trends.

It quietly built the infrastructure trends would eventually need.


While many chains were focused on short-term attention, Injective focused on long-term architecture. It wasn’t built to be just another blockchain — it was engineered to become the financial operating system of the decentralized world.


That sounded ambitious years ago.


Now?

It sounds inevitable.


Injective isn’t adapting to where crypto is going — the market is finally catching up to what Injective was always designed for.





Why Injective Feels Different: It Was Built With Purpose


Most blockchains fall into predictable categories:


✔ general-purpose chains trying to be everything

✔ niche chains optimized for one vertical like NFTs or gaming


Injective sits in a rare middle ground — a chain built intentionally for prioritized financial use cases, but flexible enough to scale into broader global markets.


Nothing in Injective's architecture feels accidental.


Every decision signals intention:



Instant settlement and Tendermint consensus to match institutional execution standards
CosmWasm and multi-VM support to lower the barrier to developers across ecosystems
Native IBC and cross-chain liquidity routing to dissolve the fragmentation problem
On-chain orderbooks instead of AMMs to support scalable structured markets
Utility-based governance and circular token economics that reinforce long-term value


Most projects tried to rebuild Wall Street on blockchain.


Injective rebuilt what Wall Street should have been if it was designed today.





The Orderbook Decision: The Hard Path Most Avoided


AMMs were an incredible stepping stone for early DeFi. But they were never meant to power global financial markets. Liquidity fragmentation, slippage, volatility exposure, and inefficient pricing models make them unsuitable at scale.


Traditional financial markets use orderbooks for a reason:

they’re predictable, efficient, and scalable.


Injective took the harder route early — building a fully on-chain orderbook environment capable of supporting:



perpetual futures
RWAs
structured products
options and spreads
FX trading
synthetic equity
algorithmic execution models
institutional risk frameworks


This wasn’t a gamble.

It was foresight.


Markets don’t scale on randomness — they scale on structure.


Injective provides the structure.





Tokenomics That Actually Make Sense


Most crypto ecosystems treat tokens like marketing tools — inflation, emissions, airdrops, and dilution.


Injective treats its native asset like an economy.


The model is based on usage, value capture, and recycling:



network fees and contract gas burn
staking rewards tied to real usage
economic incentives aligned with participation
governance utility deeply tied to protocol operations


INJ doesn't rely on inflation to grow.


It grows when the network grows.


It's a token model closer to Bitcoin scarcity, Ethereum burn mechanics, and traditional buyback logic than the inflationary tokenomics we see everywhere else.


This design supports long-term value — not temporary excitement.





Builders Choose Injective Because It Removes Barriers


Developers don't want complicated environments.


They want:



liquidity
tools
infrastructure
scalability
no gatekeeping


Injective gives them exactly that: plug-and-play financial primitives, cross-chain liquidity, modular components, and permissionless market creation.


And now with AI-powered iBuild, the final barrier — coding skill — begins to disappear.


The next wave of builders won’t be Solidity developers.


They’ll be creators, financial engineers, analysts, startup founders, and even individuals with ideas but no technical background.


Injective gives them a canvas where:



Thinking becomes building.

Idea becomes product.

Product becomes market.


This is how ecosystems grow — not by hype, but by capability.





The Real Endgame: Institutional-Grade On-Chain Finance


The financial world isn’t watching crypto anymore — it’s participating.


Banks, sovereign funds, exchanges, government entities, and asset managers are no longer exploring blockchain as a theory.


They’re implementing it.


What do they need?



predictable execution
interoperability
compliance pathways
settlement finality
liquidity routing
programmable financial logic


Injective doesn’t need to adapt to institutional requirements.


It already meets them.


And that positions Injective not as yet another blockchain — but as a competitor to existing financial rails like:


NASDAQ. CME. SWIFT. Bloomberg. Cross-border clearing hubs.


Crypto isn’t replacing finance — it’s upgrading it.


Injective is building the upgrade layer.





Timing: The Hidden Advantage


The cycle is shifting:


Speculation → Utility

Closed ecosystems → Interoperability

Retail-only → Institutional integration

Hype-driven → Value-driven


Injective doesn’t need a narrative pivot.


The market cycle is pivoting toward Injective’s original vision.


Now it’s no longer about proving the concept — it’s about scaling it.





Final Thought


Injective has never needed loud hype.


Its work speaks for itself.


Integration by integration.

Upgrade by upgrade.

Builder by builder.

Market by market.


Injective isn’t one of many.


Injective is one of the few — and eventually, it may become the one the rest of the industry depends on.


Not because it shouted the loudest.


But because it built the deepest.


Not hype.


Execution.


And execution always wins in the end.
#Injective🔥 $INJ @Injective #injective
#Decentralized #Web3

Even Memcoin's collapse doesn't seem to have slowed Solana's five-month growth: according to DeFiLlama, Solana surpassed all other chains for the fifth consecutive month, generating the largest cryptocurrency trading volume on the Decentralized Exchange (DEX) at $109 billion.

Solana's monthly trading volume on DEX was 24% higher than the second largest #Ethereum #blockchain ($88 billion) and more than 300% higher than the third largest Arbitrum blockchain ($25 billion).
the majority of Solana's DEX trading volume was generated by leading protocols Raydium, Meteora and Orca, with Solana's primary automated market maker (AMM), Raydium, generating DEX volume of $41 billion, #decentralized exchange and liquidity provider Meteora generating about $25 billion, and DEX and AMM Orca generating about $22 billion.
However, when the DEX ethereum volume is combined with the DEX volumes of the top two tiers (Arbitrum, Base and OP Mainnet), the result is US$149.504 billion, making it the largest ecosystem in terms of trading activity.
#Solana According to Floor, Solana's app revenue also exceeded that of all other networks combined, accounting for 54% of the market and bringing in $285 million.
Last month, a series of fraudulent launches, including Libra, Melania and Trump, led to Solana According to CoinGecko, token prices fell more than 30% over the same period. There is no better evidence of this drop than the sharp decline in token launches
Pump. fun. according to Dune Analytics. The number of tokens issued (tokens that have reached a market value of $100,000) on the platform dropped significantly, from 24,008 in January to 11,906 in February.
the number of tokens launched per day also plummeted. Similarly, Pump. fun's total volume on a weekly basis is at levels previously seen in September 2024 and looks like death, said Nooman. eth.
Read us at: Compass Investments

Binance Smart Chain ($BNB BSC) is a blockchain platform that has rapidly gained traction within the #decentralized finance (defi) ecosystem and beyond. Developed by Binance, one of the world's leading cryptocurrency exchanges, BSC was created to address the scalability and speed limitations of existing blockchain networks like Ethereum. BSC’s features, including faster transaction speeds, lower costs, and compatibility with Ethereum, have made it a popular choice for developers, traders, and users looking for a more efficient decentralized ecosystem.
In this article, we'll dive deep into Binance Smart Chain—its origins, key features, how it works, use cases, and its future prospects.
1. Introduction to Binance Smart Chain (BSC)
Binance Smart Chain was launched by the Binance team in September 2020 as an alternative to Ethereum. It offers a fast, low-cost platform for building decentralized applications (dApps), particularly in the rapidly growing fields of decentralized finance (DeFi), non-fungible tokens (NFTs), and gaming.
BSC is designed to support the creation and execution of smart contracts and decentralized applications with low latency and high throughput. Binance Smart Chain was specifically built to address Ethereum's limitations, such as high transaction fees and slow confirmation times, which can be prohibitive for smaller transactions or high-volume dApps.
2. Key Features of Binance Smart Chain
BSC has several features that differentiate it from other blockchain networks, especially Ethereum:
Dual Chain Architecture: One of the most notable aspects of BSC is its dual-chain architecture. It works alongside the Binance Chain, Binance's original blockchain, which is optimized for fast transactions and trading. BSC provides a platform for decentralized applications (dApps) and smart contracts. This dual architecture allows users to seamlessly transfer assets between Binance Chain and Binance Smart Chain while benefiting from the speed and efficiency of both networks.Proof of Staked Authority (PoSA): Binance Smart Chain uses a consensus mechanism called Proof of Staked Authority (PoSA), which combines elements of Proof of Stake (PoS) and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS). In PoSA, validators are selected based on the amount of Binance Coin (BNB) they stake, and they are responsible for validating new blocks. This allows BSC to achieve faster transaction times and scalability compared to traditional Proof of Work (PoW) blockchains like Bitcoin and Ethereum.Low Transaction Fees: One of the main selling points of BSC is its low transaction fees. BSC transactions cost only a fraction of what Ethereum transactions do, which makes it more attractive for developers, users, and traders, especially for smaller transactions or high-frequency trading.EVM Compatibility: Binance Smart Chain is fully compatible with the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM). This means that developers can deploy Ethereum-compatible decentralized applications (dApps) on BSC without needing to rewrite their code. As a result, developers can take advantage of BSC's faster speeds and lower costs while using the same tools and programming languages they would use on Ethereum (e.g., Solidity).Fast Block Time: BSC has a block time of approximately 5 seconds, compared to Ethereum’s 13-15 seconds. This quick block time ensures that transactions are processed faster, which is crucial for applications that require high throughput.Staking and Governance: #BSC uses staking to secure the network. Users who stake BNB tokens can participate in the network’s governance by voting for validators. This decentralized governance mechanism ensures that decisions about the network are made by the community, increasing transparency and inclusivity.
3. How Binance Smart Chain Works
Binance Smart Chain operates on a decentralized network of validators that are responsible for validating transactions and securing the network. Here's a breakdown of how it works:
Validators and Consensus Mechanism: Binance Smart Chain uses a Proof of Staked Authority (PoSA) consensus mechanism. In PoSA, a set of 21 validators is chosen to validate transactions and add new blocks to the blockchain. These validators are selected based on the amount of BNB they stake, and the process ensures that BSC operates in a decentralized, secure, and scalable manner.Transaction Processing: Once a transaction is initiated on BSC, it is broadcast to the network and processed by the validators. The transactions are grouped into blocks and added to the blockchain every 5 seconds, thanks to BSC’s fast block time. The validators validate and finalize transactions, ensuring that the blockchain remains secure and accurate.EVM Compatibility and Smart Contracts: Binance Smart Chain’s compatibility with Ethereum means that developers can deploy smart contracts written in Solidity (the language used by Ethereum) directly on BSC. This feature allows BSC to leverage Ethereum's established developer ecosystem, offering a seamless transition for Ethereum-based applications.BEP-20 and BEP-2 Tokens: BSC supports two primary types of tokens: BEP-20 tokens (the equivalent of ERC-20 tokens on Ethereum) and BEP-2 tokens (the native token standard on Binance Chain). BEP-20 tokens are used for building dApps and DeFi projects, while BEP-2 tokens are used primarily within the Binance Chain ecosystem.
4. Use Cases and Applications of Binance Smart Chain
Binance Smart Chain's fast transaction speeds, low fees, and scalability make it ideal for various use cases, particularly in the growing fields of DeFi, NFTs, and gaming. Here are some of the most popular use cases for BSC:
Decentralized Finance (DeFi): BSC has become a hub for DeFi projects due to its low-cost transactions and fast block times. Many DeFi applications such as decentralized exchanges (DEXs), lending platforms, and yield farming protocols have been built on BSC. PancakeSwap, $CAKE one of the most popular DEXs, runs on Binance Smart Chain and offers a similar experience to Ethereum-based Uniswap, but with lower fees and faster transaction speeds.Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): BSC has seen a rise in NFT platforms and marketplaces, where users can buy, sell, and trade digital assets. NFTs on BSC are much more affordable than their Ethereum counterparts, making it an attractive choice for creators and collectors. Platforms like BakerySwap and Treasureland operate on BSC, offering users the ability to mint, buy, and sell NFTs at lower costs.Gaming: The blockchain gaming industry has also found a home on Binance Smart Chain. With the rise of Play-to-Earn (P2E) games, BSC offers a cost-effective and scalable platform for game developers to build and deploy games that use blockchain technology for in-game assets, rewards, and economies.Cross-Chain Interoperability: BSC’s dual-chain system allows for easy interoperability with other blockchains, particularly Binance Chain. This ability to transfer assets seamlessly between chains enables users to enjoy the best of both worlds—fast transactions and low fees on BSC, along with the liquidity and trading capabilities of Binance Chain.Decentralized Applications (dApps): BSC is home to a wide range of dApps that span various sectors, including finance, gaming, entertainment, and social media. Developers can build dApps on BSC using Ethereum-compatible tools, making it a popular platform for the development of decentralized services.
5. Binance Smart Chain Ecosystem
The Binance Smart Chain ecosystem is thriving, with thousands of decentralized applications (dApps), projects, and platforms being built on it. Key players in the BSC ecosystem include:
PancakeSwap: A decentralized exchange (DEX) built on BSC that is similar to Uniswap but with lower fees and faster transaction speeds. PancakeSwap has become one of the top DeFi platforms in terms of total value locked (TVL).Venus Protocol: A decentralized lending and borrowing platform built on BSC, enabling users to earn interest on their crypto holdings or borrow assets at competitive rates.BakerySwap: $BAKE An NFT marketplace and decentralized exchange (DEX) on BSC, allowing users to mint, buy, and sell NFTs, as well as trade tokens and provide liquidity.Alpha Homora: A platform for leveraged yield farming and lending on Binance Smart Chain, offering users opportunities to maximize returns on their crypto holdings.
6. Challenges and Future of Binance Smart Chain
While BSC has gained significant adoption, it is not without its challenges:
Centralization Concerns: The 21 validator system may lead to concerns about centralization. While BSC’s PoSA mechanism is designed to provide fast transactions, it also means that a small number of validators control the network. This could pose risks to decentralization in the long run.Network Congestion: As more applications and users join the Binance Smart Chain ecosystem, there could be potential issues with network congestion, especially as the DeFi sector continues to grow. However, BSC’s low-cost structure and fast block times help mitigate this issue to some extent.Competition: BSC faces competition from other blockchain networks like Ethereum, Solana, Polkadot, and Avalanche, all of which are vying for dominance in the DeFi space. However, BSC’s low fees and Ethereum compatibility have allowed it to carve out its niche in the market.
Despite these challenges, Binance Smart Chain’s future looks promising. With ongoing development and continued adoption, BSC is likely to remain one of the most influential blockchain platforms in the DeFi ecosystem.
7. Conclusion
#Binance Smart Chain has proven to be a revolutionary #blockchain platform, offering a solution to the scalability and transaction fee issues faced by other blockchain networks like Ethereum. Its fast transaction speeds, low fees, and Ethereum compatibility make it a strong contender in the world of decentralized finance, NFTs, and blockchain applications.
As the DeFi ecosystem continues to grow, Binance Smart Chain’s role in powering decentralized applications and providing affordable, scalable solutions will only become more significant. With ongoing development and strong community support, BSC is set to remain one of the leading platforms for dApp development and blockchain innovation. #maubpk